K S LO ENGLISH

Before we get started, can you describe Britain in a sentence? The country that gave us the most Independence Days? Jokes aside.

Undoubtedly, British history has left an indelible mark on the pages of World History. From its ancient roots to the modern era, the story of Britain is one of conquests, conflicts, and colonization.

Roman Britain

In 54 BC, the Roman Empire (Imperium Rōmānum)’s invasion of European countries spread to Britain. After winning the Gallic Wars (Bellum Gallicum), Julius Caesar (Gaius Iulius Caesar) led his army personally across the English Channel to the British Isles and fought fierce wars with various tribes in Britain. Although Britain became a vassal state of the Roman Empire afterward, it actually retained a degree of independence.

In 43 AD, Claudius (Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus), emperor of the Roman Empire, invaded Britain again and had a great victory. He declared his rule over Britain. It is the beginning of the Roman rule period in British History. The Roman Empire established military bases in today’s London and Colchester areas, incorporated part of British territory into Roman territory, and established the Province of Britain (Provincia Britannia). By 85 AD, the Roman Empire’s territory in Britain had extended to the south of the River Clyde.

In the early days of the Romans’ conquest, the local Celts (Celti) launched a series of uprisings against the Romans, but they all failed. The Roman Empire continued to expand its territory in Britain but could not defeat the tribes in the northern Scottish Highlands (Hielands/Ghàidhealtachd) after several attempts.

In the 2nd century AD, Hadrian (Publius Aelius Traianus Hadrianus Augustus), Roman Emperor, ordered the construction of Hadrian’s Wall (Vallum Hadriani), also known as the Picts’ Wall, a defensive line in the northern part of the British island to prevent the invasion of Picts from northern Britain.

During the Romans’ rule, urban culture in Britain saw rapid development. In order to ensure the smooth conduct of military operations amid continuous wars, the provincial government built a developed road network to connect the towns. These roads became the basis of the transport infrastructure of later England. To stabilize life in the ruled areas, the Romans improved agriculture, planned cities, promoted industrial production, and built large-scale constructions in the Province of Britain, leaving behind numerous valuable facilities and aspects of civilization for later Britain.

The Province of Britain was first divided into Upper Britain and Lower Britain (Britannia Superior et Britannia Inferior), and later into four provinces. Britain had been in turmoil under Roman rule. The Welsh region in the west continued to resist, the Scottish region in the north continued to attack southward. However, due to the Roman Empire’s advanced military, the Roman army got most of the victories, and continued to expand its territory and occupy different islands.

In the last days of the Romans’ rule, various forces from Scotland, Ireland, Wales, and Nordic tribes continued to fight against the Roman army. With other invasions, the powerful Roman Empire finally ushered in its decline. The declining Romans could only withdraw their troops and shrink their power across Europe, withdrawing from Britain as well.

Anglo-Saxon England

The decline of the Roman Empire marked the beginning of the Anglo-Saxon Era.

From 600 to 800 AD, the Anglo-Saxons (Αγγλοσάξονες) began to invade the British Isles from the south to the center and gradually established some kingdoms in these areas. At that time, the number of kingdoms established by the Anglo-Saxons and Britons (Αρχαίοι Βρετανοί) was far more than seven. However, as time went by, some large countries gradually annexed the smaller ones, and finally formed seven large kingdoms, known as the “Heptarchy” (ἑπταρχία) in history. These kingdoms waxed and waned later, and Anglo-Saxon England gradually formed a unified England. But in the later period, Anglo-Saxon Britain began to decline and was invaded by Vikings and French.

Anglo-Saxon England was very similar to the Province of Britain. Their invasions brought wars and casualties, but they also brought many aspects of civilization development and prosperity. Especially in language, after a long period of historical evolution, the language of the ancient Britons finally stabilized after the arrival of the Germanic people, and Anglo-Saxon or Old English (Ænglisc) became the foundation of modern English. Not only the language, but the establishment of the Heptarchy and the subsequent formation of a unified England also laid the foundation for the country’s political structure. Additionally, it witnessed advancementsin agriculture, trade, and craftsmanship, contributing to economic growth. Anglo-Saxon England left a lasting legacy in the fields of literature, law, and governance, influencing England’s identity and institutions for centuries to come.

Heptarchy

From the 7th to the 8th century, seven major kingdoms emerged in Anglo-Saxon England: Kent, Sussex, Wessex, Essex, Northumbria, East Anglia, and Mercia.

Alfred the Great fought hard to resist the invasion of Viking pirates. He was the only king during this period to be awarded the title of “the Great”. He is acknowledged as the first king to achieve rule over the modern England area directly.

Viking Age

In the 9th century, the invasion of Vikings became a problem across Europe.

Alfred the Great was tasked with opposing the Vikings. After his death, his son, Edward the Martyr, continued to oppose the Vikings, reconquering a few territories.

At the end of the 10th century, the Vikings invaded England again. In 1002, Æthelred II, King of England, also known as Æthelred the Unready, ordered the massacre of Vikings due to a perceived threat in the territory, which angered Sweyn Forkbeard (Svend Tveskæg), the King of Denmark and Norway. He led troops against England four times, and finally defeated Æthelred II in 1013 and took over England.

Unfortunately, Sweyn Forkbeard’s reign was short-lived, as he died the following year. His son, Canute the Great (Knútr inn ríki), succeeded to the throne. In 1016, Æthelred II died of illness, and his son Edmund II could no longer compete with Canute the Great. After succession battles for control, England was completely ruled by Canute the Great following the death of Edmund II. England had been completely conquered.

The Danish rule ended on June 8, 1042. As the ruler at the time had no heir, Edward the Confessor succeeded him, reclaiming England for native rule.

Norman Conquest

In the Battle of Hastings, William the Conqueror (Guillaume le Conquérant) invaded England. King Harold Godwinson and his two brothers also died on the battlefield, and the Anglo-Saxon royal family was extinguished. The Duchy of Normandy (Duchie de Normaundie) conquered England and established the Norman Dynasty.

This conquest completely changed the cultural trend of England. Since then, England has been profoundly influenced by the French language, literature, cuisine, and more. Additionally, it brought changes to the legal system, architecture, social structure, and administration of England, introducing a more centralized feudal system.

Norman Dynasty

Under the Norman Dynasty, England experienced significant political, social, and cultural changes. The Normans introduced a more centralized administration, replacing the previous Anglo-Saxon system. They implemented a feudal structure, where land was granted to nobles in exchange for military service and loyalty, solidifying their control over the country. This system strengthened the monarchy’s authority and allowed the Norman kings to exert greater control over their territories.

The Normans also made substantial contributions to the legal system. William the Conqueror commissioned the compilation of English law, resulting in the creation of the Domesday Book (Liber de Wintonia). Henry I established a system of royal justice, laying the foundation for the common law system that would develop in England.

In culture, they introduced the French language, which became the language of the aristocracy and the ruling class. French influence extended to literature, art, and architecture.

The influence of the Normans can still be seen today in British architecture, the legal system, language, and more, making the Norman Dynasty an essential period in British history. However, it also accelerated the feudalization of England.

Although Latin is often considered a dead language, its influence is immortal. It pervades various fields such as Medicine, Science, and Religion.

 

Introduction

Latin (Lingua Latīna) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally the dialect of a tribe called Latium, located in the west-central Apennine Peninsula in Italy. In the 8th century BC, Rome emerged as the center of the Latium region, and the surrounding tribes began to identify themselves as Romānus or Romānī. Following the founding of Rome (Rōma), the civilization experienced the Roman Kingdom (Regnum Romanum) era (7th century BC~510 BC), the Roman Republic (Respublica Romana) era (510 BC~27 BC), and the Roman Empire (Imperium Rōmānum) era (27 BC~476 AD). With the expansion of its territory, Latin not only became dominant in the Apennine Peninsula but also supplanted other languages, establishing itself as the official language of the provinces of the Roman Empire.

 

History

Linguists refer to the earliest form of Latin as “Pre-literary Latin” (prior to 250 BC).

From the 4th century BC, Rome began to expand outward, and by the 1st century BC, all of Italy had been Latinised. However, there was no unified standard for Latin during this period. Linguists refer to the Latin of this period as “Archaic Latin”.

The written language used during the period of Emperor Augustus (Octavius) of the Roman Empire is referred to as “Classical Latin” (Latina Classica) (80 BC~2nd century AD). This era, spanning the late Republic to the early Empire, is roughly equivalent to the Golden Age in the history of Latin literature (90 BC~4 AD) and the Silver Age (14~117 or 180). By the Golden Age, Latin had formed a unified and standardized language, characterized by a rich vocabulary, perfect syntax, and strong expressive power.

“Classical Post-Latin” (14~200), including the Silver Age (14~117 or 118) in literary history, was the language of the early Roman Empire. It still largely adhered to the grammatical norms of the Golden Age, but the syntactic structure evolved, the prose incorporated certain poetic elements, and the rhetoric became richer.

“Vulgar Latin” or “Late Latin” (3rd~6th centuries AD) marks the period from the later Roman Empire to a hundred years after the fall of the Western Roman Empire. During this time, Latin evolved rapidly, especially between the 6th and 8th centuries. Declension largely disappeared, the use of prepositions and auxiliary verbs increased, and the subjunctive form often intermingled with the declarative form. Consequently, Classical Latin gradually diverged from Vulgar Latin and eventually became a written language. Vulgar Latin dialects evolved from the 6th to 9th centuries into the modern Romance languages.

From the early medieval period onward, Latin lost its native speakers. However, Medieval Latin was used across Western and Catholic Europe during the Middle Ages as a working and literary language, from the 9th century to the Renaissance. This developed into a more refined form known as Renaissance Latin, which laid the foundation for Neo-Latin that evolved during the early modern era. During these periods, while Latin was productively used and taught for both writing and speaking, its spoken usage began to erode by the late seventeenth century. Afterward, Latin was predominantly taught for reading purposes.

Ecclesiastical Latin remains the official language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church in Vatican City. When discussing current uses of Latin, we also refer to Contemporary Latin, which has limited productive use and is seldom spoken. However, a small number of Christian clergy still speak Latin fluently.

In the evolution of Latin into the languages of the Romance language family (such as French, Italian, Catalan, Spanish, Portuguese…), many words lost their grammatical inflection endings, especially declensions, which have mostly disappeared in many Romance languages (with the exception of some pronouns).

Following these developments, Latin continued to decline and eventually became an extinct language.

 

Effects

One of the most significant influences of Latin is undoubtedly the alphabet (alphabetum). The alphabet we use today, known as the Roman or Latin Alphabet, was indirectly derived from the Greek Alphabet between the 7th and 6th centuries BC. This alphabet, used by the Romans, originally consisted of 23 letters. Before the Middle Ages, Romans used “I” to replace “J” and “V” to replace “U”. The letters J, U, and W were added in the 11th century, forming the modern 26-letter alphabet. The ancient Latin Alphabet was written in capital letters only and without punctuation, so the words in inscriptions that we see today are separated by space or dots.

Another significant influence of Latin is its vocabulary (vocabulum). Approximately 50% of English words are derived from Latin. Understanding the roots of a word to find its primitive form is a great way to learn a language. For example, the word “nova” (new) is the primitive word of “novice”, “novel”, “novelty”, and “nova”. The word “prima” (first) is the primitive word of “prime”, “primary”, “primitive”, and “primeval”…

Furthermore, the names of each month also originated from Latin. For instance, “January” (Januarius) is derived from the name of Janus, a god from Roman Mythology. “April” (Aprilis) comes from the Latin word “aperire”, which means “start” or “the start of spring”. “September” signifies “seventh” in Latin, as in the Ancient Roman Calendar, there were only 10 months in a year…

Additionally, many early books and notes were written in Latin. Works such as Isaac Newton’s “The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy” (Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica), Nicolaus Copernicus’ “On The Revolutions” (De revolutionibus orbium coelestium), and Johannes Kepler’s “Mystery of the Cosmos” (Mysterium Cosmographicum) are prime examples…

 

Grammar

Latin is a highly inflected language, with three distinct genders (masculine, feminine, and neuter), six noun cases (nominative, accusative, genitive, dative, ablative, and vocative), five declensions, four verb conjugations, and six tenses (present, imperfect, future, perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect).

The sentence structure in English that we use today typically follows the SVO (subject-verb-object) order. However, in Latin, the general order is SOV (subject-object-verb). For instance, in the sentence “Ego puer sum” (I am a boy), “sum” is the verb and “puer” is the object. Additionally, in Latin, there are no articles, so “puer” can mean either “the boy” or simply “boy”.

 

Some Latin Phrases

If you’ve ever watched Dead Poets Society, you’re likely familiar with the phrase CARPE DIEM. This Latin phrase, used by the Roman poet Horace, expresses the idea that one should enjoy life while one can — it means “seize the day”. However, it actually has a second part, CARPE DIEM, QUAM MINIMUM CREDULA POSTERO, which translates to “seize the day, trusting as little as possible in the next one.”

Another phrase we’re going to introduce is Gaius Julius Caesar’s (Gaius Iulius Caesar) quote, VENI VIDI VICI. This phrase comes from the letter that Gaius Julius Caesar wrote to the Roman Senate (Senatus) after defeating Pharnaces II of the Kingdom of Pontus at the Battle of Zela. It’s a powerful phrase that means “I came, I saw, I conquered.”

The last phrase we’re going to introduce is SEMPER PROGREDIENS. Personally, I find this phrase very meaningful — it means “always progressing”. And progress (processus) is what we should pursue throughout our lives.

 

Conclusion

Latin, such a fascinating language… Sadly, Latin began to fade away in the 6th century, shortly after the fall of Rome in 476 AD. To quote a verse from 2 Samuel 1:23 in the Bible, “In morte quoque non sunt divisi” (Even in death they were not divided).