K S LO ENGLISH

Before we get started, can you describe Britain in a sentence? The country that gave us the most Independence Days? Jokes aside.

Undoubtedly, British history has left an indelible mark on the pages of World History. From its ancient roots to the modern era, the story of Britain is one of conquests, conflicts, and colonization.

Roman Britain

In 54 BC, the Roman Empire (Imperium Rōmānum)’s invasion of European countries spread to Britain. After winning the Gallic Wars (Bellum Gallicum), Julius Caesar (Gaius Iulius Caesar) led his army personally across the English Channel to the British Isles and fought fierce wars with various tribes in Britain. Although Britain became a vassal state of the Roman Empire afterward, it actually retained a degree of independence.

In 43 AD, Claudius (Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus), emperor of the Roman Empire, invaded Britain again and had a great victory. He declared his rule over Britain. It is the beginning of the Roman rule period in British History. The Roman Empire established military bases in today’s London and Colchester areas, incorporated part of British territory into Roman territory, and established the Province of Britain (Provincia Britannia). By 85 AD, the Roman Empire’s territory in Britain had extended to the south of the River Clyde.

In the early days of the Romans’ conquest, the local Celts (Celti) launched a series of uprisings against the Romans, but they all failed. The Roman Empire continued to expand its territory in Britain but could not defeat the tribes in the northern Scottish Highlands (Hielands/Ghàidhealtachd) after several attempts.

In the 2nd century AD, Hadrian (Publius Aelius Traianus Hadrianus Augustus), Roman Emperor, ordered the construction of Hadrian’s Wall (Vallum Hadriani), also known as the Picts’ Wall, a defensive line in the northern part of the British island to prevent the invasion of Picts from northern Britain.

During the Romans’ rule, urban culture in Britain saw rapid development. In order to ensure the smooth conduct of military operations amid continuous wars, the provincial government built a developed road network to connect the towns. These roads became the basis of the transport infrastructure of later England. To stabilize life in the ruled areas, the Romans improved agriculture, planned cities, promoted industrial production, and built large-scale constructions in the Province of Britain, leaving behind numerous valuable facilities and aspects of civilization for later Britain.

The Province of Britain was first divided into Upper Britain and Lower Britain (Britannia Superior et Britannia Inferior), and later into four provinces. Britain had been in turmoil under Roman rule. The Welsh region in the west continued to resist, the Scottish region in the north continued to attack southward. However, due to the Roman Empire’s advanced military, the Roman army got most of the victories, and continued to expand its territory and occupy different islands.

In the last days of the Romans’ rule, various forces from Scotland, Ireland, Wales, and Nordic tribes continued to fight against the Roman army. With other invasions, the powerful Roman Empire finally ushered in its decline. The declining Romans could only withdraw their troops and shrink their power across Europe, withdrawing from Britain as well.

Anglo-Saxon England

The decline of the Roman Empire marked the beginning of the Anglo-Saxon Era.

From 600 to 800 AD, the Anglo-Saxons (Αγγλοσάξονες) began to invade the British Isles from the south to the center and gradually established some kingdoms in these areas. At that time, the number of kingdoms established by the Anglo-Saxons and Britons (Αρχαίοι Βρετανοί) was far more than seven. However, as time went by, some large countries gradually annexed the smaller ones, and finally formed seven large kingdoms, known as the “Heptarchy” (ἑπταρχία) in history. These kingdoms waxed and waned later, and Anglo-Saxon England gradually formed a unified England. But in the later period, Anglo-Saxon Britain began to decline and was invaded by Vikings and French.

Anglo-Saxon England was very similar to the Province of Britain. Their invasions brought wars and casualties, but they also brought many aspects of civilization development and prosperity. Especially in language, after a long period of historical evolution, the language of the ancient Britons finally stabilized after the arrival of the Germanic people, and Anglo-Saxon or Old English (Ænglisc) became the foundation of modern English. Not only the language, but the establishment of the Heptarchy and the subsequent formation of a unified England also laid the foundation for the country’s political structure. Additionally, it witnessed advancementsin agriculture, trade, and craftsmanship, contributing to economic growth. Anglo-Saxon England left a lasting legacy in the fields of literature, law, and governance, influencing England’s identity and institutions for centuries to come.

Heptarchy

From the 7th to the 8th century, seven major kingdoms emerged in Anglo-Saxon England: Kent, Sussex, Wessex, Essex, Northumbria, East Anglia, and Mercia.

Alfred the Great fought hard to resist the invasion of Viking pirates. He was the only king during this period to be awarded the title of “the Great”. He is acknowledged as the first king to achieve rule over the modern England area directly.

Viking Age

In the 9th century, the invasion of Vikings became a problem across Europe.

Alfred the Great was tasked with opposing the Vikings. After his death, his son, Edward the Martyr, continued to oppose the Vikings, reconquering a few territories.

At the end of the 10th century, the Vikings invaded England again. In 1002, Æthelred II, King of England, also known as Æthelred the Unready, ordered the massacre of Vikings due to a perceived threat in the territory, which angered Sweyn Forkbeard (Svend Tveskæg), the King of Denmark and Norway. He led troops against England four times, and finally defeated Æthelred II in 1013 and took over England.

Unfortunately, Sweyn Forkbeard’s reign was short-lived, as he died the following year. His son, Canute the Great (Knútr inn ríki), succeeded to the throne. In 1016, Æthelred II died of illness, and his son Edmund II could no longer compete with Canute the Great. After succession battles for control, England was completely ruled by Canute the Great following the death of Edmund II. England had been completely conquered.

The Danish rule ended on June 8, 1042. As the ruler at the time had no heir, Edward the Confessor succeeded him, reclaiming England for native rule.

Norman Conquest

In the Battle of Hastings, William the Conqueror (Guillaume le Conquérant) invaded England. King Harold Godwinson and his two brothers also died on the battlefield, and the Anglo-Saxon royal family was extinguished. The Duchy of Normandy (Duchie de Normaundie) conquered England and established the Norman Dynasty.

This conquest completely changed the cultural trend of England. Since then, England has been profoundly influenced by the French language, literature, cuisine, and more. Additionally, it brought changes to the legal system, architecture, social structure, and administration of England, introducing a more centralized feudal system.

Norman Dynasty

Under the Norman Dynasty, England experienced significant political, social, and cultural changes. The Normans introduced a more centralized administration, replacing the previous Anglo-Saxon system. They implemented a feudal structure, where land was granted to nobles in exchange for military service and loyalty, solidifying their control over the country. This system strengthened the monarchy’s authority and allowed the Norman kings to exert greater control over their territories.

The Normans also made substantial contributions to the legal system. William the Conqueror commissioned the compilation of English law, resulting in the creation of the Domesday Book (Liber de Wintonia). Henry I established a system of royal justice, laying the foundation for the common law system that would develop in England.

In culture, they introduced the French language, which became the language of the aristocracy and the ruling class. French influence extended to literature, art, and architecture.

The influence of the Normans can still be seen today in British architecture, the legal system, language, and more, making the Norman Dynasty an essential period in British history. However, it also accelerated the feudalization of England.